BASICS OF REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING

BASICS OF REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING

TEMPERATURE

Temperature is the level of heat or the measure of the intensity of heat of a
substance. Temperature is directly proportional to heat. As heat is added to
a substance, its temperature increases. As heat is removed, its temperature
decreases.

The English system uses the Fahrenheit to measure temperature. The metric
or the SI unit of temperature is the Celsius. A thermometer is an instrument
that is used to measure temperature.

At standard atmospheric conditions, the pressure is 29.92 in. Hg or 14.7 psia
at sea level. At these given conditions:
a. water boils at 212 °F
b. water freezes and becomes ice at 32 °F

Absolute zero is the temperature at which there is zero heat and molecules have
zero movement.

The absolute zero temperature in the Rankine scale is 0 °R. This is equal
to -460 °F.

°R = °F + 460

The absolute zero temperature in the Kelvin scale is 0 °K. This is equal
to -273 °C.

°K = °C + 273



To convert from °C to °F:

°F = (1.8 x °C) + 32

Example: Convert 100 °C, the boiling point of water to °F

°F = (1.8 x 100) + 32

°F = (180) + 32
 
°F = 212 °F



To convert from °F to °C:

Example: Convert 32 °F, the freezing point of water to °C

°C = (°F - 32)/1.8

°C = (32 - 32)/1.8

°C = 0 °C



TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP

Charle's Law:
If the pressure of a gas is constant, its absolute temperature is directly
proportional to its volume,

(V1/T1) = (V2/T2)


Example:
Find the absolute temperature at which 50 liters of a gas at 21 C
must be raised at in order to have a final volume of 100 liters.

Solution:
V1 = 50 liters
T1 = 21 + 273 = 294 K
V2 = 100 liters

(V1/T1) = (V2/T2)

50/294 = 100/T2

T2 = 294 x 100/50

T2 = 588 K



TEMPERATURE AND VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Charle's Law:
If the volume of a gas is constant, its absolute temperature is directly
proportional to its pressure,

(P1/T1) = (P2/T2)


Example:
A certain gas has an initial pressure of 500 Kpaa at 21 C. Determine its final
pressure when the temperature is increased to 35 C.

Solution:
P1 = 500 Kpaa
T1 = 21 + 273 = 294 K
T2 = 35 + 273 = 308 K

(P1/T1) = (P2/T2)

500/294 = P2/308

P2 = 500 x 308/294

P2 = 524 Kpaa



PRESSURE

Pressure is the force acting on a unit area. Pressure is inversely proportional
to the area of contact. The smaller the area of contact, the greater the
pressure exerted. Pressure is directly proportional to the force.

Pressure flows from a higher pressure to a lower pressure until it equalizes.

P = F/A


Example:
Find the pressure on one sole of the foot of a 180 lb person. What is the
pressure if the same person stands on both feet?

Solution:
a. The area of one sole of a foot of an average person is 30 sq in.

P = F/A

P = 180/30

P = 6 psi

b. The area of both soles of the feet of an average person is 60 sq. in.

P = 180/60

P = 3 psi

Thus, the pressure exerted is twice greater standing on one foot than the
pressure when standing on both feet.



PRESSURE AND DEPTH

Pressure is directly proportional to the depth and the relative density
of the liquid.

P = 9.8 x d x RD

where:
P = pressure in Kpa
d = depth of liquid in meters
RD = relative density of the liquid

Relative density is also known as Specific Gravity. It is the ratio of the density of
a substance to the density of a reference substance (water). It is also equal to
the ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water.

SG = Density of substance/Density of water

SG = mass of substance/mass of equal volume of water

The specific gravity of an object which will float on water is equal to the
fraction of the submerged volume. It is also equal to the ratio of the
submerged height to the object's total height.

If the specific gravity of a substance is lesser than 1, it will float on water. If
it is greater than 1, it will be submerged in water.


Example:
The relative density of a certain oil is 0.82. Find the pressure at the bottom
of the oil storage tank if the oil level is 2 meters.

Solution:
d = 2 m
RD = 0.82

P = 9.8 x d x RD

P = 9.8 x 2 x 0.82

P = 16 Kpa


Example:
An empty container has a mass of 50 g. When filled with water, the total
mass is 200 g. When filled with a liquid with an equal volume as that of
the water, the total mass is 300 g. Calculate the specific gravity of the
liquid.

Solution:
mass of liquid = 300 - 50 = 250 g
mass of water = 200 - 50 = 150 g

SG = mass of substance/mass of equal volume of water

SG = 250/150

SG = 1.67


Example:
A block of wood is 10 inches in length. It was dropped in a container filled
with water. The submerged height was 8 inches. Find the relative density of
the given wood.

Solution:
submerged height = 8 in
total height = 10 in

RD = submerged height/total height

RD = 8/10

RD = 0.8



PRESSURE AND VOLUME RELATIONSHIP

Boyle’s law:
If the temperature is constant, the absolute pressure of a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume.

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2


Example:
The piston compressed a gas from 12 liters at 100 Kpaa to a final volume of 1 liter.
Determine the final pressure.

Solution:
P1 = 100 Kpaa
V1 = 12 liters
V2 = 1 liter

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

P2 = 100 x 12/1

P2 = 1200 Kpa



PARTIAL PRESSURES

Dalton’s law:
The total pressure of a confined mixture of gases is the sum of the individual
pressures of the gases in the mixture.

Pm x Vm = (P1 x V1) + (P2 x V2) + (P3 x V3) + ...


Example:
Tank A contains Nitrogen at a pressure 2400 Kpaa and a volume of 100 liters.
Tank B contains gas at a pressure of 1000 Kpaa and a volume of 200 liters. If
the tanks are connected and the valves of both tanks are opened to allow
the gases to mix, calculate the total pressure of the gas mixture.

Solution:
P1 = 2400 Kpaa
V1 = 100 L
P2 = 1000 Kpaa
V2 = 200 L
Vm = 100 + 200 = 300 L

Pm x Vm = (P1 x V1) + (P2 x V2)

Pm x 300 = (2400 x 100) + (1000 x 200)

Pm = 1467 Kpaa



IDEAL GAS LAW (PERFECT GAS LAW)

P1 x V1/T1 = P2 x V2/T2


Example:
An air compressor compresses air from 20 liters at 100 Kpaa and 27 C to 2 liters
and 1200 Kpaa. Find the final temperature of air.

Solution:
P1 = 100 Kpaa
V1 = 20 liters
T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
P2 = 1200 Kpaa
V2 = 2 liters

P1 x V1/T1 = P2 x V2/T2

100 x 20/300 = 1200 x 2/T2

T2 = 360 K



4 LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. Zeroth law
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, all three systems
are in thermal equilibrium.

2. First law
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form
into another. Perpetual motion machines are impossible.

3. Second law
The entropy (disorder) increases and the energy decreases whenever energy is
transformed from one form to another.

4. Third law
At absolute zero temperature, all atoms of a substance will stop moving.
The entropy of a system is zero at absolute zero temperature.



3 LAWS OF NEWTON

1. Inertia
A body will stay at rest or in motion unless acted upon by external force.

2. Acceleration
Acceleration is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional
to the mass. Force is the product of an object's mass and acceleration.

a = F/m

F = m x a

3. For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.



DENSITY

Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.

D = m/V

m = D x V


density of water (4 C/39 F) = 62 lb/cu ft (approx 8 lb/gal)

density of air (sea level, 15 C/59 F) = 1.22 kg/m^3

density of air (sea level, 15 C/59 F) = 0.076 lb/cu ft (approx  1 oz/cu ft)

1 ounce (oz) = 28 grams

1 cubic foot (cu ft) = 7.5 gallons (US)

1 cubic meter = 35 cu ft (264 US gal)


Example:
Calculate the mass of 1 gallon of water.

Solution:
V = 1 gallon

m = D x V

m = 8 x 1

m = 8 lb



SPECIFIC VOLUME

Specific volume is the volume of a substance per unit mass.
Specific volume is the inverse (reciprocal) of density.

SV = V/m

SV = 1/D


The specific volume of dry air at standard atmospheric conditions is 13.33 cu ft/lb.



WEIGHT

Weight is the force caused by Earth's gravity.
Weight is the number (value) you see on a weighing scale.
Weight is a form of Force.

W = m x g

F = m x g

W = F

where:
W = weight of object, Newtons
m = mass of object, kilograms
g = acceleration due to gravity, equal to 9.8 m/s^2
F = force, Newtons

Example:
What is the weight of an object having a mass of 8 kg?

Solution:
m = 8 kg

W = m x g

W = 8 x 9.8

W = 78 N



WORK

Work is the product of the force and the distance travelled.
Work is also the product of Pressure and Volume (flow work).

Work = F x d

Work = P x V


Example:
A sand bag with a mass of 20 kg is raised to a height of 1 meter. Find the
work required. How much is the work done by the sand bag if it was dropped
1 meter?

Solution:
Force = mass x acceleration due to gravity
F = m x g
F = 20 x 9.8
F = 196 N

d = 1 m

Work = F x d

Work = 196 x 1

Work = 196 Nm (Joules)



POWER

Power is the rate of doing work. Power is work per unit of time.
Power is also the product of Force and Velocity.

Power = Work/time

Power = F x d/t

Power = Force x velocity


1 Horsepower (HP) = 746 watts

1 Kilowatt (KW) = 1.34 HP


Example:
How much power is required by a pump to raise 1 drum of water (approx.
200 liters, 55 US gallons) to a height of 10 meters in 2 minutes?

Solution:
m = 200 kg (the mass of 1 Liter of water is 1 Kilogram)
d = 10 m
t = 2 x 60 = 120 sec

F = m x g
F = 200 x 9.8
F = 1960 N

Work = F x d
Work = 1960 x 10
Work = 19,600 J

Power = Work/time
Power = 19,600/120
Power = 163 J/s (watts)

Horsepower = 163/746
Horsepower = 0.22 HP


EFFICIENCY

Efficiency is the ratio of Power output to Power input. It is expressed in %.

Efficiency = Power output/Power input

% Efficiency = (Power output/Power input) x 100%


Example:
If the pump in the previous example is 90% efficient, calculate the required
power input to the pump.

Solution:

Power input = Power output/Efficiency

Power input = 0.22/0.90

Power input = 0.24 HP (approx. 1/4 HP)



ENERGY

Energy is the ability to do work.

Potential Energy
Potential Energy (PE) is the energy of a body due to its position (height).
PE is equal to the work done in lifting that given body to that height.

PE = F x d

PE = Work


Example:
Calculate the potential energy of 4 liters (approx 1 gallon) of water at a
height of 3 meters (approx 10 feet).

Solution:
F = m x g
F = 4 x 9.8 = 39 N
d = 3 m

PE = F x d
PE = 39 x 3
PE = 117 J

Note:
The power required by a 100 watt light bulb is approximately equal to the
work required to lift 1 gallon of water to a height of 10 feet in 1 second.


Kinetic Energy
Kinetic Energy (KE) is the energy of a body due to its motion.
Kinetic Energy is equal to 1/2 times the product of mass and the square of
velocity.

KE = 0.5 x m x v^2


Example:
A car travelling at 90 km/hr (55 mph) have a speed of 25 meters per second.
If the car has a mass of 2000 kg, determine its kinetic energy at this speed.

Solution:
m = 2000 kg
v = 25 m/s

KE = 0.5 x m x v^2

KE = 0.5 x 2000 x 25 x 25

KE = 625,000 J

KE = 625 KJ



HEAT

Heat is a form of energy.
Heat naturally flows from a hotter substance to a colder substance.
Heat is directly proportional to mass, specific heat and temperature difference.

Q = m x C x TD

where:
Q = heat
m = mass
C = specific heat
TD = temperature difference

1 Btu = 1.05 KJ

1 KJ = 0.95 Btu


Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of a substance
1 degree Fahrenheit.

specific heat of water = 1 Btu/lb-F (4.2 KJ/kg-C)

specific heat of ice = 0.5 Btu/lb-F (2.1 KJ/kg-C)

specific heat of steam = 0.5 Btu/lb-F (2.1 KJ/kg-C)

specific heat of air = 0.24 Btu/lb-F (1 KJ/kg-C)


Example:
A hot water tank is to be heated to a temperature of 140 °F (60 C). If the
temperature of city cold water is 45 °F  (7 C), find the heat required to heat
a 50 gallon residential hot water tank.

Solution:
m = D x V
m = 8 lb/gal x 50 gal = 400 lb
T1 = 45 F
T2 = 140 F

Q = m x C x (T2 - T1)

Q = 400 x 1 x (140 - 45)

Q = 38,000 Btu


Note:
Residential water heaters (boilers) range in size from 50,000 - 150,000 Btu/hr.


Sensible heat
Sensible heat is a form of heat with a change in temperature without a change
of state. It can be measured by a thermometer.

Latent heat
Latent is a form of heat with a change of state without change in temperature.
This cannot be measured by a thermometer.


latent heat of vaporization of water = 970 Btu/lb (2260 KJ/kg)

latent heat of fusion of ice = 144 Btu/lb (334 KJ/kg)


Example:
The temperature of a domestic refrigerator freezer compartment is 0 °F to 5 °F
(-18 C to -15 C). Calculate the total heat required to melt 1 lb of ice at 0 F and
turn it to steam at 222 F.

Solution:
m = 1 lb
T ice = 0 F
T ice melting point = 32 F
T water boiling point = 212 F
T steam = 222 F

a. Sensible heat of ice

specific heat of ice = 0.5 Btu/lb-F

Q = m x C x (T ice melting point - T ice)

Q = 1 x 0.5 x (32 - 0)

Q = 16 Btu


b. Latent heat of ice

latent heat of fusion (LHF) of ice = 144 Btu/lb

Q = m x LHF

Q = 1 x 144

Q = 144 Btu


c. Sensible heat of water (melted ice to boiling water)

specific heat of water = 1 Btu/lb-F

Q = m x C x (T water boiling point - T ice melting point)

Q = 1 x 1 x (212 - 32)

Q = 180 Btu


d. Latent heat of vapor

latent heat of vaporization (LHV) of water = 970 Btu/lb

Q = m x LHV

Q = 1 x 970

Q = 970 Btu


e. Sensible heat of steam (superheated vapor at 222 F)

specific heat of steam = 0.5 Btu/lb-F

Q = m x C x (T steam - T water boiling point)

Q = 1 x 0.5 x (222 - 212)

Q = 5 Btu


f. Total heat

Qtotal = 16 + 144 + 180 + 970 + 5

Qtotal = 1315 Btu



REFRIGERATION

Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from a substance and transferring
that heat to another substance.

Refrigeration Capacity (Rating)
One ton of refrigeration is the amount of heat required to melt 1 ton (2000 lb)
of ice in 24 hours. Refrigeration equipment are rated in tons (tonnage) or KW.

1 Ton of Refrigeration (TOR) = 288,000 Btu/24 hr

1 Ton of Refrigeration (TOR) = 12,000 Btu/hr

1 Ton of Refrigeration (TOR) = 200 Btu/min

1 Ton of Refrigeration (TOR) = 3.5 KW

1 Ton of Refrigeration (TOR) = 4.7 HP

1 KW = 3412 Btu/hr

1 KW-hr = 3412 Btu 

1 watt = 3.4 Btu/hr

1 HP = 2544 Btu/hr


Example:
A house has a 75,000 Btu/hr furnace for winter heating. Calculate its power
in KW.  The furnace runs an average of 10 hours per day. If the cost of energy
is 7 cents/KW-hr, find the daily and monthly power consumption and energy
cost of heating the house during the winter season.

Solution:
Power = 75,000 Btu/hr
Energy cost = 7 cents/KW-hr = $0.07/KW-hr
Furnace run time = 10 hr/day

a. Power in KW

Power = 75,000 Btu/hr  x  1 KW/3412 Btu/hr

Power = 75,000/3412

Power = 22 KW


b. Daily power consumption for heating

Power per day = 22 KW x 10 hr/day

Power per day = 220 KW-hr/day


c. Daily energy cost for heating in the winter season

Energy cost per day = 220 KW-hr/day  x  $0.07/KW-hr

Energy cost per day = $15


d. Monthly power consumption for heating

Power per month = 220 KW-hr/day x 30 days/month

Power per month = 6600 KW-hr/month


e. Monthly energy cost for heating in the winter season

Energy cost per month = 6600 KW-hr/month  x  $0.07/KW-hr

Energy cost per month = $462



AIR CONDITIONING

Air-conditioning is a branch of refrigeration that deals with comfort cooling.
Air conditioning provides comfortable:
(1) temperature
(2) humidity
(3) air flow
(4) air quality



COOLING COST IN SUMMER SEASON

Example:
A house has 3 bedrooms each with a 6000 Btu/hr window air-conditioner.
The living room and all common living spaces are cooled by a ductless split
air-conditioner with a total cooling capacity of 2 tons. All air-conditioning
equipment run continuously for 24 hours each day during the summer. The cost
of electricity is 7 cents/KW-hr. How much is the daily and monthly power
consumption and electric bill spent for cooling and air conditioning the house.

Solution:
Total Power = (3 x 6,000 Btu/hr) + (2 tons x 12,000 Btu/hr per ton)
Total Power = 18,000 + 24,000
Total Power = 42,000 Btu/hr ==> 3.5 tons
Energy cost = 7 cents/KW-hr = $0.07/KW-hr
Air Conditioner running time = 24 hr/day


a. Total Power in KW

Power = 42,000 Btu/hr  x  1 KW/3412 Btu/hr

Power = 42,000/3412

Power = 12 KW


b. Daily power consumption for air conditioning

Power per day = 12 KW x 24 hr/day

Power per day = 288 KW-hr/day


c. Daily energy cost of air conditioning in summer season

Energy cost per day = 288 KW-hr/day  x  $0.07/KW-hr

Energy cost per day = $20


d. Monthly power consumption for air conditioning

Power per month = 288 KW-hr/day x 30 days/month

Power per month = 8640 KW-hr/month


e. Monthly energy cost of air conditioning in summer season

Energy cost per month = 8640 KW-hr/month  x  $0.07/KW-hr

Energy cost per month = $600


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CONDUCTION

Conduction is a method of heat transfer through direct contact. An example
of conduction is a cooking pot directly over a burner hot plate. Heat directly
transfers from the stove hot plate to the cooking pot.

Metals such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin and silver are good conductors of
heat and electricity because of free electrons that travel to another substance.
Good conductors of heat take a short amount of time for heat transfer.
Copper is one of the best conductors and is widely used in the refrigeration
industry for refrigerant piping as well as wires for power and controls.

Poor conductors of heat are called insulators. Glass, fiberglass, cork, styrofoam
and vermiculite are examples of heat insulating materials. Glass is one of the
poorest conductors of heat and is typically used in many applications.


CONVECTION

Convection is a method of heat transfer by moving currents in gases or liquids.
There are two forms of convection: natural and forced. Hot air currents rising
above a furnace and spreading around the room is an example of natural
convection. The hot air is replaced by the colder denser air and thereby provides
continuous air current movement. Another type of convection is forced convection,
whereby a fan or blower creates a pressure difference (pressure flows from a
region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure). This ensures air is
circulated throughout the room.

Air and water are the most common mediums used in the heating and air
conditioning industry. Common examples are centralized hot water heating
systems in most buildings. Other applications are the use of hot air and steam
for heating.


RADIATION

Radiation is a method of heat transfer whereby the heat travels in the form of
high speed infra-red radiation waves. Radiation is the process in which heat is
transferred without affecting the space between the heat source and the
absorbing material. An example of this is the heat from the sun to the earth.
Heat is absorbed by the earth without heating the outer space.

The amount of heat radiated by a hot body depends on the:
a. area of radiating surface
b. texture of radiating surface
c. colour of radiating surface
d. temperature difference between the object and its surroundings

The best radiators and absorbers of radiant heat are those materials that have
rough dull black surfaces. The best reflectors of heat are those materials
with shiny or white surfaces.


MAIN USES OF REFRIGERATION

Food preservation
As the temperature of food products is lowered, the growth of bacteria which
causes food spoilage will be diminished.

Comfort cooling
Comfort cooling, also known as air-conditioning is used to provide comfortable
living conditions for homes and offices.


REFRIGERATION TEMPERATURE RANGES

The temperature ranges in the refrigeration industry are:
1. High temperature: 45°F to 70°F (7 C to 21 C)
2. Medium temperature: 35°F to 45°F (2 C to 7 C)
3. Low temperature: 0°F to -10°F (-18 C to -23 C)


AIR CONDITIONING EQUIPMENT DESIGN GUIDELINES

40°F (4 C): evaporator cooling coil design temperature
55°F (13 C): evaporator fan air temperature (supply to room)
75°F (24 C): inside room design temperature (return air from room)
95°F (35 C): outside ambient design temperature (condenser air supply)
125°F (52 C): condenser outside coil design temperature


AIR PRESSURE, ELEVATION & BOILING POINT

The atmospheric pressure of air at sea level is 29.92 in Hg or 14.7 psia. The
boiling point of water at these conditions is 212 F.

The atmospheric pressure of air at higher elevations is reduced by approx
1 in Hg per 1000 ft (0.5 psi/1000 ft). Mount Everest has a height of 29,029 ft
(8,848 m). The actual measured air pressure at the top of Mount Everest is
about 10 in Hg (5 psi). The air pressure is 1/3 that of sea level, resulting in the
reduction of oxygen which is the reason why it is very difficult to breathe at
higher elevations. Also, the boiling point of water is reduced to 71 °C (160 °F).
These conditions will make cooking difficult and will require more time to cook.


REFRIGERANT SATURATION PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE

A refrigerant is a substance used in refrigeration process that can quickly turn
into vapor by the addition of heat and into a liquid by the removal of heat.

Saturation temperature of a refrigerant is its boiling point. In this state, the
refrigerant is a mixture of liquid and vapour. The saturation temperature
increases with an increase in saturation pressure. A saturated vapor is a vapor
in which it will readily become superheated vapor with the addition of heat and
will readily condense to a sub-cooled liquid with the removal of heat.


SUPERHEAT AND SUB-COOLING

Superheat is the temperature above saturation. A superheated vapor is a vapor
with a temperature higher than the saturation temperature. Subcooling is the
temperature below saturation. A sub-cooled liquid is a liquid with a temperature
lower than the saturation temperature.

Example:
Steam at 222 F is superheated by 10 F because the boiling point (saturation
temperature of water is 212 F).

Superheat = 222 F - 212 F = 10 F

Water at 200 F is subcooled by 12 F because the saturation temperature of
water is 212 F.

Sub-cooling = 212 F - 200 F = 12 F


BASIC COMPONENTS OF REFRIGERATION & AIR CONDITIONING
1. Compressor
2. Condenser
3. Metering device
4. Evaporator


COMPRESSOR

The function of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant throughout the
system. It lowers the pressure on the low-pressure side of the system and
raises pressure on the high-pressure side of the system. This difference in
pressure (pressure differential) is what causes the refrigerant to flow. The
compressor does this by drawing the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator,
compressing it (reducing its volume, while increasing its pressure) and then
discharges it to the condenser.


CONDENSER

The condenser removes heat from the refrigeration system. The condenser
performs three basics purposes. First, it desuperheats the refrigerant from
superheated vapor to saturated vapor. Second, it condenses the saturated vapor
and convert it to saturated liquid. Third, it subcools the saturated liquid to a
temperature below the boiling point.

The Liquid Line is the tubing from the condenser outlet to the metering device.
It contains subcooled liquid and its temperature is higher than the suction line.


METERING DEVICE

The metering device or expansion device regulates the amount and flow of
liquid refrigerant into the evaporator. It lowers the pressure of the refrigerant,
causing it to turn into a mixture of flash gas and liquid. This will cause the
refrigerant to have low pressure and low temperature so that it can evaporate
(boil) at a low temperature, absorb heat from the load and produce a cooling
effect in the evaporator.


EVAPORATOR

The evaporator provides cooling by absorbing heat. It performs three main
functions: absorb heat, turn liquid refrigerant into saturated vapor and superheat
the refrigerant before being sent to the compressor.

The Suction Line is the tubing used to connect the evaporator outlet to the
compressor suction. The suction line is usually made of copper and is insulated
to prevent heat from the surroundings to be absorbed by the system. Another
reason why suction lines are insulated is to prevent sweating (condensation).
A suction line with insulation provides higher efficiency than a suction line with
no insulation. Higher efficiency will translate into savings on energy costs.


18 apr 2015

HOME (DOMESTIC) ROOM AIR-CONDITIONER TEMPERATURES & PRESSURES

COMPRESSOR
60 F = vapor refrigerant entering temperature
200 F = vapor refrigerant exiting temperature
delta T = 200 - 60 = 140 F

70 psig = vapor refrigerant entering pressure
280 psig = vapor refrigerant exiting pressure
delta P = 280 - 70 = 210 psig
compression ratio = 280/70 = 4

CONDENSER
280 psig = saturation pressure (head pressure, condensing pressure)
280 psig = refrigerant inlet pressure
280 psig = refrigerant outlet pressure (constant pressure condenser)
95 F = outside ambient air temperature
30 F = temperature difference between ambient and condensing temperature

200 F = vapor refrigerant entering temperature
125 F = saturation temperature at condenser (condensing temperature)
105 F = subcooled liquid temperature leaving condenser
subcooling = 125 - 105 = 20 F

METERING DEVICE
105 F = subcooled liquid refrigerant temperature entering metering device
40 F = refrigerant temperature exiting metering device
delta T = 105 - 40 = 65 F

280 psig = subcooled liquid refrigerant pressure entering metering device
70 psig = refrigerant pressure exiting metering device
delta P = 280 - 70 = 210 psig

75% liquid, 25% vapor = state of refrigerant exiting metering device

EVAPORATOR
40 F = refrigerant inlet temperature
50 F = refrigerant outlet temperature
evaporator superheat = 50 - 40 = 10 F

70 psig = refrigerant inlet pressure
70 psig = refrigerant outlet pressure (constant pressure evaporator)

60 F = compressor suction line temperature
system superheat (compressor superheat) = 60 - 40 = 20 F

50% = relative humidity of air entering evaporator
75 F = temperature of air entering evaporator (room air return temperature)
55 F = temperature of air leaving evaporator (room air supply temperature)
room air delta T = 75 - 55 = 20 F

20 F = outside ambient air & inside room air temperature differential
20 F = 95 F - 75 F


BANNED/FOR PHASEOUT REFRIGERANTS
R-12 (Freon-12)
R-22 (Freon-22)
R-500
R-502

NEW/REPLACEMENT REFRIGERANTS
R-134a
 - replacement for R-12
 - medium and high-temperature refrigeration
 - refrigerators, freezers, automotive air-conditioning

R-407C
 - replacement for R-22 in residential and commercial air-conditioning

R-410A
 - replacement for R-22 in residential and commercial air-conditioning
 -  higher operating pressures than R-22

R-404A
 - replacement for R-502
 - low and medium temperature refrigeration

R-507
 - replacement for R-502
 - low and medium-temperature refrigeration applications
 - higher pressures and capacity than R-404A

R-507A
 - replacement for R-502 and R-22
 - higher efficiency than R-404A
 - higher efficiency than low-temperature R-22

R-407A
 - medium and low-temperature commercial refrigeration
 - direct expansion residential and commercial air-conditioning 


REFRIGERANT SELECTION CRITERIA
1. Safe
2. Detectable
3. Boiling point above atmospheric pressure
4. Economical compressor to handle vapor volume

Note:
Water is not a practical refrigerant because it will require a large compressor.
The vapor volume of water is 2445 cubit feet per 1 pound at 40°F.


REFRIGERANT SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
1. Refrigerants displace oxygen because refrigerants are heavier than air.
2. When working with refrigerants, ensure proper ventilation.
3. Ensure there are no sources of arcs or open flames.
4. When refrigerants react with flame, they will emit toxic and corrosive gas.
5. Don't mix and match refrigerants.


METHODS OF REFRIGERANT LEAK DETECTION
1. Hearing/Visual
2. Soap-bubble solution
3. Ultrasonic leak detector
4. Electronic leak detector
5. Ultraviolet leak detection


REFRIGERANT CYLINDER COLOR CODES
R-11  Orange 
R-12  White 
R-22  Green
 
R-113  Purple 
R-114  Dark blue
R-134a  Light blue
R-123  Light gray

R-401A  Coral red
R-401B  Mustard yellow
R-401C  Aqua 

R-402A  Light brown 
R-402B  Green-brown 

R-404A  Orange
R-406A  Light gray-green

R-407A  Bright green
R-407B  Cream 
R-407C  Chocolate 

R-409A  Tan
R-410A  Rose 

R-500  Yellow
R-502  Orchid
R-717  Silver


LAW
It is illegal to intentionally vent refrigerant into the atmosphere.
It is mandatory for technicians to recover and sometimes recycle refrigerants
during installation and servicing.


TOOLS OF THE TRADE

The following are the tools generally used by refrigeration and air conditioning
service technicians:

Hand Tools:
Screwdrivers, bits & tips
Nut drivers
Files
Cold chisel
Straight metal snips
Aviation metal snips
Taps (internal thread cutter) 
Die (external thread cutter
Pipe-threading die
Awl
Measuring Tape (Rule)
Flashlight
Extension cord/lights
Drill bits
Hacksaw
Hole saw
Reciprocating saw
Jigsaw
Square
Levels
Fish tape
Utility knife
C-Clamp

Wrenches
- Socket wrench with ratchet handle
- Open end wrench
- Box end wrench
- Combination wrench
- Adjustable wrench
- Ratchet box wrench (refrigeration wrench)
- Air-conditioning and refrigeration reversible ratchet hex wrench
- Air-conditioning and refrigeration reversible ratchet box wrench
- Flare nut wrenches
- Pipe wrench
- T-Handle hex keys
- Combination crimping and stripping tool
- Automatic wire stripper
- Stainless inspection mirror
- Glass telescoping inspection mirror
- Stapling tackers

Pliers
- General-purpose pliers
- Needle-nose pliers
- Side cutting pliers
- Slip joint (channel locks)
- Locking pliers (vise grip)

Hammers
- Ball-peen hammer
- Soft head (rubber mallet)
- Carpenter’s claw hammer

Power Tools:
- Portable electric drill, cord type
- Portable electric drill, cordless

Tubing Tools:
- Tube Cutter
- Inner–outer reamers
- Flaring Tools (flaring bar, slip-on yoke, feed screw with flaring cone, handle)
- Tube deburring tool
- Swaging Tools (punch-type, lever-type, die-type)
- Tube Benders (spring type, lever type, gear type)
- Plastic Tubing Shear (PVC and polyethylene tubing shear)
- Tubing Pinch-off tool
- Metalworker’s Hammer
- Tube brushes

Specialized Service and Installation Tools:
- Gauge manifold (high pressure, compound gauge (low-pressure and vacuum)
- Electronic gauge manifold (superheat and subcooling, vacuum, thermometer)
- Programmable charging meter or scale
- Digital vacuum gauge
- Electronic thermistor vacuum gauge (up to 50 microns or 0.050 mm Hg)
- Vacuum Pump


 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------



.

Signs/Causes/Reasons for Overload trip - Motor troubleshooting

- blown fuse
- improperly sized fuse
- tripped/open circuit breaker
- failed capacitor
- overheating
- poor ventilation/lack of cooling
- high ambient temperature
- broken motor fan
- low voltage
- overvoltage
- voltage fluctuation, transient voltages
- power imbalance to the phases (not same power to each phase)
- insufficient torque
- belts too tight
- one phase drawing excessive amps
- one phase is open (single phasing)
- phase imbalance (voltage on one phase lesser than others)
- one phase drawing no (zero) amps
- open contactor contacts
- open motor winding
- low insulation resistance
- low resistances causing high currents
- vibration
- damaged stator
- loose wiring
- improper wiring combinations
- loose contactor contacts
- grounded motor
- shorted motor
- defective overload heater
- malfunctioning overload block
- overload relay failure
- overload protection not properly sized/not properly set
- motor sitting for long period of time (e.g. not operated during winter)
- seized motor
- rotor not turning
- shaft not turning freely
- shaft misalignment
- shaft too loose
- rotating parts contact stationary parts
- soft footing/foundation
- pipe strain
- moisture
- rust, contamination, dirt, accumulated dust
- bearing failure
- overlubrication
- inadequate or incorrect lubrication
- jam/obstruction inside/outside motor
- inadequate wiring/undersize wires
- undersized motor
- tripping of thermal protection/overload trip
- system alteration (e.g load increase, power supply changes, etc)
- new component added
- flowrate increase (airflow, water flow, heat load increase)
- operating a motor at 10% to 15% above rated speed
- harmonic distortion causing high frequency voltages or high current
- wear, incorrect fit
- shaft voltages/currents while rotating
- variable frequency drive (VFD) has improper pulses generated

How ddc works: HVAC Furnace direct digital control

HOW DDC WORKS

CENTRAL WORKSTATION (control, monitor, manage)

-         talks to global controllers/building controllers

-         send, receive, process, store, print the data

-         check component and system status

-         check trends and monitor performance of equipment

-         change set points, schedules and settings

-         ASCENT COMPASS - Alerton

GLOBAL CONTROLLERS (integrate devices)

-         talks to field controllers/zone controllers

-         connects/provides gateway to allow communication

with devices made by different manufacturers

-          integrates different devices

-         ACM, BCM, VLX - Alerton

FIELD CONTROLLERS (control terminal units)

-         operates actuators, fans, blowers, pumps

-         field controller for VAV, AHU, Fan coil unit, chiller

cooling tower, boiler, terminal unit

-         VLC, VAV - Alerton

     

SENSORS

-         provide input, send signal to controllers

-         display room setpoints and fan status

-         display room temperature, outside air temperature, relative humidity

-         MICROSET - Alerton

HOW CONTROLLER WORKS

 

Receive Input Information From Sensors

Process Input Information

Respond with an Output Action

Receive Feedback when set point is met

Respond with another Output Action

Example:  How a Furnace DDC works?

1.      Thermostat (Sensor) calls for heat

2.      Thermostat switch is closed, sends voltage signal to control board

3.      Control board (“Brain”) receives and processes input signal from thermostat

4.      Control board closes contactor, inducer fan motor starts

5.      Air flow switch/Sail switch closes to confirm air flow supplied by fan

6.      Control board will activate the Spark Igniter

7.      Control board activates Gas Valve

8.      Burner ignites

9.      Flame Sensor detects flame

10.   Spark Igniter deactivates

11.   Control board energizes Indoor Fan Blower motor

12.   Furnace supplies heat to the structure (room, home, building, etc.)

13.   Thermostat temperature set point is met

14.   Thermostat opens switch, sends feedback signal voltage to control board

15.  Control board shuts off the Gas Valve and Induced draft fan

   

   

HOW BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEM (BAS) WORKS

 

BAS uses an integrated network of Workstations, Global Controllers, Field Controllers, Sensors, Gateways, Routers, Repeaters, Cables and other associated components that are designed and programmed to provide the following building services:

1. Networking
2. Control, Monitoring and Alarms
3. Data collection
4. HVAC – Heating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning
5. Real-time Adjustments of Setpoints, Percent valve openings, etc
6. Scheduling, Remote Operation and Remote Access
7. Changing Modes, e.g. Economizer mode (to save on energy costs)
8. Load and Demand Control
9. Fire Protection
10. Security
11. Lighting management
12. Energy Management

 

 

Refrigeration System Sequence of Operation

REFRIGERATION (COOLING) CYCLE:

Power is supplied to Timer Motor

Timer Motor controls time for Cooling and Defrost cycles

Room Thermostat Closes when the temperature rises above setpoint

Control Board will activate the Refrigeration/Cooling Mode

Timer Motor is on Refrigeration/Cooling Mode

Defrost Heater is Off

Defrost Limit Switch is Off

Defrost Termination Solenoid is Off

Defrost Termination Thermostat/Fan Delay Switch is On

Evaporator Fan Motor is On

Liquid Line Solenoid is energized

Liquid Line Solenoid Valve Opens to allow liquid refrigerant to Evaporator

Low Pressure Control/Switch is Closed

High Pressure Control/Switch is Closed

Overload Protection is Closed

Compressor Contactor Coil is Energized

Compressor Runs

Condenser Fan Motor Runs

When Desired Room Temperature is reached

Room Thermostat Opens

Liquid Line Solenoid is De-energized

Liquid Line Solenoid Valve Closes

Compressor continues to run to allow Pump Down of refrigerant

Low Pressure Control/Switch will Open

Compressor Contactor Coil will De-energized

Compressor will turn Off

Condenser Fan Motor will turn Off

When defrost time is reached by the Timer Motor

Defrost Mode/Cycle begins



===============



DEFROST CYCLE/MODE:

Compressor Pump Down process

Timer Motor will be on Defrost Mode/Cycle

Defrost Heater is On

Defrost Limit Switch is On

Defrost Termination Solenoid is On

Defrost Termination/Fan Delay Switch is Off

Evaporator Fan Motor is Off

When defrost time is completed and Evaporator warms up

Defrost Termination Thermostat Closes

Low Pressure Control Closes

Compressor starts

Condenser Fan Motor Starts

Refrigeration Cycle Starts

When Evaporator coil temperature cools down

Fan Delay Switch will Close

Evaporator Fan Motor will turn On

Refrigeration cycle continues until the next Defrost Cycle is set by Timer Motor

Advantages Disadvantages of Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Electrical-Electronic systems

The following relates to general Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Electrical-Electronic systems
as well as Control Systems which uses the systems mentioned.



Pneumatic Systems advantages:
- cheap initial installation
- air availability
- ease of transfer through piping
- ease of power and speed transmission
- ease of use
- ease of maintenance
- safe, explosion proof
- clean
- works in wide temperature range
- reserve compressed air can be stored



Pneumatic Systems disadvantages:
- more energy cost compared to hydraulic
- easy to leak
- hard to find leaks
- noise
- condensation/moisture
- needs drying to avoid condensation
- control of speed needs additional devices
- control of position difficult
- does not work underwater
- does not work in extreme temperatures
- requires bigger cylinder to handle the same load as in hydraulic



Hydraulic Systems advantages:
- high horsepower-to-weight ratio
- maintains constant torque and force
- hydraulic power can be transmitted in long distances
- motion reversal is fast
- handles strong, heavy loads, shock forces
- lesser overall wear because of oil lubrication
- does not generate sparks
- smooth operation/lifting/movement of loads
- costs less energy to operate
- leaks easier to find
- operates in hot environments



Hydraulic Systems disadvantages:
- more expensive initial installation than pneumatic system 
- noisy
- risk of contamination
- requires more energy to operate
- requires more maintenance
- heavier components, parts
- hydraulic fluid dangerous to humans
- hydraulic fluid not environment friendly



Electronic/Electrical Systems advantages:
- high accuracy
- quiet
- longer life
- no moving parts
- lesser maintenance
- more reliable
- high efficiency
- higher energy savings due to better energy management
- less drift and recalibration problems




Electronic/Electrical Systems disadvantages:
- expensive initial cost
- complexity of algorithms/troubleshooting
- risk of radio frequency interference
- risk of fire hazards due to arcs, sparks
- risk of electricution, short circuits, grounds

8-minute run time for 3/8 cordless drill 18 volts

Example:
18 volts Lithium-ion
3/8 inch chuck
Max. Torque: 400 inch-lbs/33 ft-lbs/45 N-m
No Load RPM : 0-400 / 0-1,300 rpm
Clutch Settings : 15 position
Length : 7.7 inch
Weight : 3 lbs
Battery Charger: 45-Minute Fast Charger
 


Cordless drill run time depends on:
- Battery voltage: More volts, More run time

- Battery capacity: More amp-hours, More run time

- Drill Efficiency: More efficient, More run time



How long cordless drill run in a single charge?
?


Run time calculation
actual screws driven: 160 screws (3 inch size) per charge
assume: 3 seconds to drive per screw

Run time = 160 screws x 3 sec/screw

Run time = 480 sec

Run time = 480 sec/60 sec per minute

Run time = 8 minutes

Pressurized Cylinder Projectile

OXYGEN, NITROGEN
Oxygen and Nitrogen cylinders typically have 2500 psig pressure
Oxygen is one of the three elements of the Fire Triangle (Fuel, Oxygen, Heat/Spark)
Oxygen cylinders are usually green in color
Nitrogen cylinders are usually black in color


ACETYLENE
Acetylene cylinders typically have 250 psig pressure
Acetylene is a highly explosive fuel gas used for brazing and welding
Acetylene burns at over 3,000 C/6,000 F (one of the hottest burning fuel gas)
Acetylene cylinders are usually maroon in color
Acetylene chemical formula is C2H2
Pressure relief valve set at 400 psig


ACETYLENE CYLINDER PROJECTILE FORCE

Example: 6 x 20 inch --- small cylinder

Diameter = 6 inch
Radius = 3 inch
Height = 20 inch
Cylinder pressure = 250 psig
Weight = 22 lbs
Capacity = 40 cubic foot of acetylene gas (120 times compressed vs. empty)


Capacity of cylinder without gas = (pi/4) x D^2 x H

Capacity of cylinder without gas = (pi/4) x 6 in^2  x 20 in x 1 cubic foot/1728 cubic in

Capacity of cylinder without gas = 0.33 cubic feet (empty)


Full capacity comparison = 40 cu ft/0.33 cu ft = 120 times compressed


Cylinder Total Surface Area, TSA

TSA = 2 x pi x r x h  +  2 x pi x r^2

TSA = pi x d x h  +  2 x (pi/4) x d^2

TSA = pi x 6 x 20  +  2 x (pi/4) x 6^2

TSA =  377 + 57

TSA = 434 sq. in.


Total Cylinder Projectile Force = Pressure x Area  + Cylinder Weight

Total Cylinder Projectile Force = 250 lb/sq in x TSA  + 22 lbs

Total Cylinder Projectile Force = ( 250 x 434 )  +  22 lbs

Total Cylinder Projectile Force =  108,500 lbs + 22 lbs

Total Cylinder Projectile Force = 108,522 lbs

Total Cylinder Projectile Force = 54 tons approx.

*** Small pressurized cylinder with huge 50 ton force projectile !!!



PRESSURIZED CYLINDERS (PRESSURE VESSELS) SAFETY

WORKING
1. Before working with pressurized cylinders, check them first.
2. Check valves, regulators - broken, damage, leak.
3. Check hoses - wear, crack, leak, damage.
4. Pay attention to leaks, noises and unusual smell.
5. After checking, if you found any defects, don't use it.
6. Keep cylinders a distance away from the work area --- don't braze/weld directly in front of the cylinder!
7. Always wear personal protective equipment when working with pressurized cylinders.
8. Open quarter turn only, this is enough for most jobs, faster to close in case of emergency.
9. Know location of fire extinguishers and nearest exits when working with pressure vessels.

TRANSPORT
1. Don't drop - damages valves, etc.
2. Transport in upright position.
3. When transporting heavy cylinders, they must have a safety cap securely fastened and be in an approved cart with chains to secure the cylinders.

STORAGE
1. Store in upright position and ensure safety cap in place - to prevent tripping, valve damage, etc.
2. They must have chains to prevent from falling over.
3. Oxygen and Fuel cylinders must be separated with a minimum wall height of 5 ft or 20 ft distance away from flammable substances such as paint.


CYLINDER SAFETY DEVICES
1. Pressure relief valves
2. Fusible plugs (low melting point)
3. Pressure regulators
4. Safety cap


EMERGENCY ACTIONS
If you find a leaking cylinder, use your discretion, safety first!!!
If the leak is small and it is safe to close the valve, then immediately close the valve without endangering yourself.
If the leak is big, evacuate the area, close the door, pull the nearest fire pull station to sound the alarm, call Fire dept...

 

3 RHVAC REPAIR (body analogy): Superheat, Subcooling, Delta T

SUPERHEAT - WHAT'S GOING ON IN EVAPORATOR
High Superheat = Thirsty Evaporator (little refrigerant)
Low Superheat  = Flooded Evaporator

SUBCOOLING - WHAT'S GOING ON IN CONDENSER
High Subcooling = Flooded Condenser
Low Subcooling  = Starved Condenser (little refrigerant)


Body Analogy:
Body is Hot = Thirsty (high superheat)
Body is Cool = Drank plenty of water (high subcooling)



SUPERHEAT & SUBCOOLING

High Superheat & High Sub-cooling:
 -- restriction/blockage in coil, orifice or line set
 -- too little refrigerant in low side (suction line)
 -- too much liquid refrigerant in the high side (liquid line)
 -- Evaporator starved of refrigerant
 -- restricted TXV or drier
 -- check TXV bulb tightness
 -- check insulation)


Low Superheat & Low Sub-cooling:
 -- orifice too big
 -- no orifice in the unit/orifice is stuck and refrigerant is by-passing it
 -- Evaporator flooded with refrigerant
 -- TXV opened too much


High Superheat & Low Sub-cooling:
 -- Undercharged on both sides (suction line & liquid line)
 -- find the leak


Low Superheat & High Sub-cooling:
 -- Overcharged on both sides (suction line & liquid line)
 -- remove, adjust charge




TROUBLESHOOTING: SUPERHEAT, SUBCOOLING, DELTA T

1. LOW CHARGE
 --- High superheat
 --- Low subcooling
 --- Low indoor TD
 --- Low suction pressure
 --- Low head pressure
 --- Low compressor amp draw


2. OVER CHARGE
 --- Low superheat
 --- Normal indoor TD
 --- High subcooling
 --- High suction pressure
 --- High head pressure
 --- High compressor amp draw


3. LOW INDOOR AIR FLOW
 --- Low superheat
 --- Low suction pressure
 --- Low to normal head pressure
 --- High to normal subcooling
 --- High indoor TD
 --- Minimal effect on current draw
 --- Low evaporator air flow
 --- dirty filters
 --- dirty evaporator coil
 --- Evaporator coil may freeze up


4. LOW OUTDOOR AIR FLOW
 --- Low subcooling
 --- Low indoor TD
 --- High superheat
 --- High suction pressure
 --- High head pressure
 --- High outdoor TD
 --- High current draw
 --- dirty condenser coil
 --- bad condenser fan


5. RESTRICTION
 --- High superheat
 --- High subcooling
 --- High head pressure
 --- High amp draw
 --- Low suction pressure
 --- Low indoor TD


6. WEAK COMPRESSOR VALVES
 --- Low superheat
 --- Low head pressure
 --- Low indoor TD
 --- Low current draw
 --- High subcooling
 --- High suction pressure




CRITICAL TEMPERATURE DIFFERENTIALS (depends on refrigerant):

Evaporator Delta T --- NOT to exceed 20 F

Condenser Delta T --- NOT to exceed 30 F

Evaporator Superheat --- between 20 F and 30 F

Condenser Subcooling --- NOT to exceed 15 F



Note:
Delta T conversion (degrees F to C)
Subtract first and then convert

F = 1.8 * C

C = F/1.8


Example:
T1 = 75 F
T2 = 90 F

Subtract:
Delta T = T2 - T1
Delta T in F = 90 - 75
Delta T in F = 15 F

Convert Delta T in Degrees F to Degrees C:
C = F/1.8
Delta T in C = 15/1.8
Delta T in C = 8 C




TYPICAL VALUES (depending on refrigerant):

SUPERHEAT: 10F - 15F --- short suction line lengths (less than 30 ft.)
SUPERHEAT: 15F - 20F --- longer lengths (between 30 and 50 ft.)

SUPERHEAT: 12-15 degrees F --- when ambient outside air temp is 75-85 degrees F
SUPERHEAT: 8-12 degrees F --- if the ambient temperature is 85 degrees F or over

Superheat with TXV: Nominal 10 degrees F at evaporator outlet
Superheat with piston: 8 to 20 degrees F at suction service valve

Superheat with TXV/cap tube: 8°F to 20°F
Superheat with electronic expansion valves & solid state controllers (newer systems): 5°F to 10°F

Subcooling: 8 to 12 degrees F
Sub-Cooling: 12-15 degrees F

EVAPORATOR DELTA T: 15F - 20F --- airside delta T across the evaporator 
EVAPORATOR DELTA T: 15-18 degrees F

AIRFLOW ACROSS EVAPORATOR: 350 to 400 cfm per ton of cooling capacity

Rule-of-thumb charging:
 -- Units come charged with refrigerant for 15 ft lineset
 -- Add 0.6 oz refrigerant per foot over 15 ft




UNIT COSTING:

$500 - $700 per ton capacity

example: 2.5 Ton Air-Conditioner (18 SEER) costs $2000
example: 120 Tons costs $60,000




INSTALLATION & LABOR COST Estimate:
Unit cost X 2

Heat Pump example:
4 tons unit for 4 bedroom (2500-3000 sq ft) house
4 tons unit cost: $3000 (18 SEER, 10 HSPF) heat pump
Installation Labor cost: $6500




APPROXIMATE TONNAGE SIZING:

500 sq ft per ton
50  sq m per ton

Area conversion:
10 sq ft = 1 sq m




Capacity conversions:
1 Ton = 12,000 Btu/hr
1 Ton = 3.5 kW
1 Ton = 4.7 HP



See also:
1. Basics of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
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#RX#

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Registration Fee (when applicant is approved as P.Eng) - $282.50
Engineer-in-Training (EIT, applicant accumulating required work experience) - $84.75
P.Eng. Licence annual fee - $248.60
Temporary Licence (non-Ontario licensed engineers to practise in Ontario) - $734.50
Provisional Licence (completed all requirements except 12 months Canadian experience) - $282.50
Limited Licence (completed required experience but insufficient qualification) - $339.00
Certificate of Authorization (to provide engineering services to the public) - $372.90
Certificate of Authorization Annual fee - $372.90
Certificate of Authorization Replacement - $56.50
Consulting Engineer Designation (qualified engineers for independent practice) - $248.60
Consulting Engineer Designation Examination (if required) - $165.00
Consulting Engineer Designation Designation Fee - $248.60
Consulting Engineer Designation Application for Redesignation - $248.60
Consulting Engineer Designation (companies offering engineering services) - $50.85
Examinations (Professional Practice Exam, PPE on ethics, professional practice, law and liability) - $165.00
Technical Examinations (those with bachelor’s degree from non-accredited Canadian university) - $580.00 first exam
Technical Examinations - $165.00 additional exams
Submission of Thesis - $300.00



====================================



Notes: Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Manitoba (APEGM)

Late Payment Fee: $52.50

Deferred Dues:
- break from practice because of injury, maternity leave, becoming a full-time student, or other extenuating circumstances
- half of normal fees
- if deferred dues for more than 4 years, re-apply to return to practice

Retired Status:
- practising Members who will not be practising engineering or geoscience any more can transfer to the 'Retired' status
- allows them to keep their vote, certificate, insurance, and P.Eng. or P.Geo. suffix
- must return their seal

Life Membership:
- Members who are over 70 years of age and have been a Professional Member for over 30 years are eligible for Life Membership
- not pay dues
- not allowed to practice
- can keep their vote and other rights

'Honorary Life Membership':
- awarded by APEGM to currently practising members
- not pay dues
- allowed to continue practising as engineers or geoscientists



Analysis/Conclusion:

Lowest Annual Membership Dues: $248.60 Ontario; $255.00 Nova Scotia


Highest Annual Membership Dues: $453.98 Quebec

2nd Highest Annual Membership Dues: $450 Saskatchewan

3rd Highest Annual Membership Dues: $362.25 British Columbia

Biasing, Forward-biased, Reversed-biased, Zero-biased in diode, p-n junction

Biasing
- applying voltage to a circuit to allow or prevent current flow.


Zero bias
- equilibrium condition in a diode or pn junction
- no external voltage applied in a p-n junction
- potential difference (built-in potential) exists across the junction


Reverse bias
- cathode voltage higher than anode voltage
- barrier voltage increases
- depletion zone width increases
- depletion region widens
- junction barrier widens
- resistance becomes greater
- prevents flow of charge carriers
- no current will flow (or minimal current flows)
- acts like an insulator


Forward bias
- barrier voltage decreases
- depletion width is reduced
- barrier potential lowered
- electrical resistance reduced
- allows current flow (conduction mode)
- current flows in the same direction on both sides of diode
- behaves like a conductor


P–N Junction Diode
- electric charges flow in one direction only
- like a mechanical check valve in piping (allowing fluid to flow in one direction only)

Droop Frequency, Droop Speed, Voltage Droop

Droop definition
The meaning of Droop is to weaken, fade, sag or lose energy.

What is frequency droop? What is speed droop?
Frequency droop or Speed Droop is the loss or decrease in frequency or speed as it go from no load to full load.

Percent Droop Frequency
Percent Droop Frequency is the ratio of the difference in no load and full load frequency to the full load frequency.

% Droop Frequency = [ (No Load Frequency - Full Load Frequency) / Full Load Frequency ] x 100%
 
Example:
Generator No Load Frequency = 63 Hz
Generator Full Load Frequency = 60 Hz

% Droop Frequency = [ (63 Hz - 60 Hz) / 60 Hz ] x 100%
% Droop Frequency = (3/60) x 100%
% Droop Frequency = 5% droop
 

Percent Droop Speed
Percent Droop Speed is the ratio of the difference in no load and full load speed to the full load speed.

% Droop Speed = [ (No Load Speed - Full Load Speed) / Full Load Speed ] x 100%
 
Example:
Motor No Load Speed = 1872 rpm
Motor Full Load Speed = 1800 rpm

% Droop Speed = [ (1872 rpm - 1800 rpm) / 1800 rpm ] x 100%
% Droop Speed = (72/1800) x 100%
% Droop Speed = 4% droop
 

What is droop voltage?
Voltage droop is the decrease or loss  in output voltage as it drives a load.

Useful Engineering Verbs for resumes, engineering manuals, presentations and documentation

Although this list is not exhaustive, these engineering verbs are helpful and handy when preparing job application resumes, engineering manuals, work or training instructions, writing textbooks and other documentation materials, and specially during presentations, safety briefs, meetings, and seminars where you audience might have little or no background in engineering. I have listed these verbs alphabetically and it is my recommendation to choose the appropriate verbs depending on you audience. For example, when doing and engineering presentation to a general audience, it is recommended to use verbs such as produces, delivers, draws, enters, receives, transmits, etc. which are easily understood by listeners which have varies background knowledge. If you have select audience with engineering backgrounds, then use the appropriate engineering technical terminologies.

A
abide
abolish
abort
accelerate
access
acclimatize
achieve
acknowledge
acquire
act
action
actuate
add
adjust
adopt
advance
advocate
affect
aggravate
agitate
aid
alarm
align
allocate
ally
alter
amalgamate
amass
amplify
analyze
angle
anneal
anodize
antifoul
apply
appropriate
approximate
arc
arrange
ascertain
asphyxiate
assemble
assist
assume
atomise
attack
attenuate
attract
authorize
automate
average
avoid

B
backlash
backup
balance
ballast
bar
beam
bear
become
become
begin
bend
benefit
blast
block
blow
board
boil
bond
boost
border
bore
braze
break
brew
brief
brine
brinell
brood
build
burn
burr
bypass

C
calculate
calibrate
cancel
cap
carburize
carry
carry out
cast
categorize
cause
center
centralize
centrifuge
chain
change
char
characterize
charge
check
choke
choose
circle
circulate
circumscribe
class
classify
close
coal
coalesce
coat
coincide
collaborate
collapse
collect
collide
colonize
combat
combine
commence
compare
compass
compensate
compile
complete
comply
compost
compound
compute
concentrate
conclude
concuct
conduct
confer
configure
conserve
consist
consolidate
constitute
constrain
constrict
construct
consume
contact
contaminate
contract
convert
cook
cool
cooperate
coordinate
copy
correct
corrode
cost
counter
counteract
counterpunch
couple
cover
crack
crest
critique
crystalize
cube
culture
curve
cushion
cut
cycle

D
damage
date
debrief
decay
decelerate
decentralize
decode
decrease
deduce
defer
defuel
de-gas
degauss
degrade
degrease
dehumidify
de-install
de-ionize
delegate
delete
delineate
demobilize
demodulate
demulsify
deny
depend
deplete
deploy
depopulate
depress
depressurize
derive
desalinate
describe
de-sensitize
design
dessicate
destroy
destruct
detail
deter
deteriorate
determine
develop
deviate
dewater
diagnose
die cast
differentiate
diffuse
dilute
diminish
dip
disable
discharge
disconnect
disembark
disjoin
dismantle
displace
display
dispose
disrupt
dissipate
dissolve
distill
distort
distribute
disturb
dive
divide
download
drag
drain
draw
drill
drop
drop forge
dry
dry run
duplicate

E
eat
economize
educate
effect
elaborate
element
eliminate
embark
embed
emerge
emphasize
employ
empty
emulsify
enable
encircle
encode
end
enforce
engine
engineer
engulf
enhance
enrich
ensure
entail
enter
entrain
enumerate
equalize
escalate
escape
establish
estimate
evacuate
evaluate
exacerbate
excavate
exceed
exchange
exclude
execute
exempt
exhaust
exit
expatriate
expel
experiment
expire
explain
explode
export
expose
extend
exterminate
extinguish
extract
extrapolate
extrude

F
factor
fail
feel
figure
fill
fillet
find
fine tune
fire
fit
flake
flange
flank
flash
float
flow
flush
focus
follow
forge
form 
form cut
formalize
formulate
foul
freeze
fuel
funnel

G
gage
gain
gas
gather
gear
generalize
generate
germinate
give
give off
go
govern
grade
graduate
graph
grease
grind
ground
group
grow
guide

H
hammer
harden
harvest
hear
heat
heave
heel
help
hob
hog
hoist
hold
hold down
hone
hub
humidify

I
identify
ignite
illuminate
imagine
impart
impede
implement
implode
imply
import
impose
impregnate
improve
in-charge
incinerate
incline
include
increase
incubate
indent
induce
infer
influence
inform
ingress
inhibit
initialize
initiate
inject
input
inscribe
inspect
inspire
install
insulate
integrate
intensify
interact
interchange
interface
interpolate
interrogate
intersect
intersperse
invalidate
invent
invert
investigate
involve
ionize
isolate

J
journey
justify

K
know

L
leave
level
liaise
life test
lift
light
limit
line
liquefy
list
listen
load
locate
lock
lock
log
loll
look
loosen
lose
lower
lubricate

M
machine
magnetize
make
manage
manufacture
margin
marginalize
mass
match
materialize
maximize
measure
meet
meld
melt
memorize
merge
mesh
mesh out
meter
minimize
mist
mist spray
mitigate
mix
mobilize
mock run
model
modify
modularize
modulate
module
moisturize
mold
moment
monitor
move
multiply
multitask

N
name
narrow
narrow down
necessitate
negate
network
neutralize
nitride
node
note
notice
nourish
nullify

O
obscure
occur
offer
oil
open
oppose
order
output
overcurrent
overheat
overload
overvoltage

P
paint
pair
parameter
pass
paste
penetrate
perceive
percolate
perforate
period
permeate
phase
phase in
phase out
pick up
picture
piece
pit
pitch
place
plan
plane
plot
point
poll
pollute
populate
position
pour
power
pre-amplify
preclude
precoat
predict
prefer
pre-filter
prepare
present
preserve
press
pressure
pressurize
prewet
prioritize
probe
proceed
procure
produce
program
progress
prohibit
project
promote
promulgate
propel
protect
prove
provide
pull
pull out
pump
pump out
punch
purge
purify
purpose
push

Q
qualify
quantify
quantisize
quench

R
radiate
raise
range
rate
reach
react
ready
realize
rebuild
recall
recharge
reciprocate
recode
recognize
recoil
recommend
reconfigure
reconnect
record
recover
rectify
recycle
redesign
reengineer
reenter
refer
refill
refit
refract
refresh
refrigerate
refuel
refurbish
regain
regulate
rehearse
reinforce
relate
relegate
relieve
remain
remind
remove
renew
repair
repeat
repel
replace
repopulate
report
reprocess
reproduce
request
require
rescue
research
reserve
reset
resist
resize
respond
response
restore
restrain
restrict
result
retail
retain
retard
return
reverse engineer
revert
review
revise
revolve
rework
rig
rim
rinse
rivet
roll
rotate
round  
round off
rule
rust

S
sag
sample
saturate
save
saw
scale
scour
screen
screw
scrub
scuff
search
sector
secure
select
sense
sensitize
separate
service
settle
setup
shake
shape
sharpen
shine
ship
shove
shut down
sight
sign
simulate
situate
sketch
slope
slow
smell
smoothen
snug
soak
soap
soften
solder
solidify
solve
source
spark
speak
specialize
specify
speed
spell
spill
spray
square
stabilize
stagnate
standardize
start up
state
store
straighten
stream
strengthen
stress
stretch
strike
strip
strive
stroke
study
sub-contract
subject
sublimate
submerge
subtend
subtract
succeed
sum
supersede
supervise
supply
support
suppose
surface
surge
suspect
suspend
swell
switch
switch off

T
table
tabulate
tag
tag out
take
tangent
taper
task
taste
temper
tender
term
terminate
test
thaw
thrive
throw
thrust
tick
tighten
time
tip
tolerate
tone
tow
trace
train
transfer
transform
transition
transpire
trap
travel
treat
treble
triangulate
trigger
trim
trip
tube
tune
turn
turn off
twist

U
universalize
unload
update
upgrade
upload
use
utilize

V
vacate
vacuum
validate
vaporize
verify
vibrate
view
violate
visualize

W
warm
wash
watch
water
wax
weaken
wear
weld
wet
winch
wipe
work
wrench

X
x-axis
x-ray
x-section

Y
yard
yaw
y-axis

Z
z-axis
zero
zero in